Following a house fire, a patient presents to the emergency department. She is coughing up blood-tinged, frothy sputum and complaining of dyspnea. Upon auscultation of her lungs, the nurse hears crackles. The pathophysiology of the patient’s signs and symptoms are most likely related to

backup of fluid from left ventricle into lungs due to a previous history of heart failure.

increase in elastase production and proteolytic activity due to smoke inhalation.

overproduction of mucus in bronchi, causing difficulty with exhalation.

alveolar inflammation and impaired surfactant function due to smoke inhalation.